Ontologia

The metaphysics is a philosophical science that searches the last causes and the principles first of the being, that is analyzes the elementary structures that are to the root of every truth. Nature, object and scope of the metaphysics. The metaphysics like science and wisdom. The analogic notion of the agency. The constituent principles of the agency. The agency and the being. The transcendental property of the agency. The finitezza of the agency. The action and the power. The participation. The degrees of the agency. The categories. The substance. The person. The cause. The idea. The ragion of being. The shape. The aim. The action. The history. The cause before. The effect of the cause before: the creation. The Being for sussistente himself.

Dr. Graziano Menghi

  The magic shows oneself for before the time on the philosophical panorama with the neoplatonismo and in particular with Plotino.  Until then it was prevailed the aristotelian conception of the knowledge for the knowledge, that is of seeing in the knowledge in a how much such value in himself:  however the philosophy was been born in Greece just with this scope, inquiring the truth without but operating on it, but catching up a solid and personal knowledge.  The philosophy servants to null and just for the this é noblest of the saperi did not say the Stagirita.  Hour the neoplatonismo sees the truth as levels legacies from complex relations and begins to be born the idea, presupposed fundamental of the magic, than the entire world it is a harmony and that touching the just rope they can be had turns out to you on other "areas" of the truth;  the entire truth is believed like with of secrets and correspondences.  However Plotino shared the stoic doctrine of the tie of sympathy between all the things and that cannot that to lead to place the ulterior issue of the effectiveness of the magical operations.  For that it regards the magical effects on the Plotino body, in compliance of the rest with the sideboards are diffused in its time, seem disposed to recognize this effectiveness;  various é the issue of the spirit:  only that irrazionale, in connected how much in tightened way more to the body, can endure the influence of the magic.  But, of other part, attributing a greater power to the spirit rations them, own of the man, Plotino can characterize in it the able instrument to react to the hostile magical forces and to dissolve them, rendering them of all the ineffective ones.  However it goes remembered that an original Latin writer of Africa, Apuleio, already had taken care itself in some way of magic:  in the 158 to Sabrata, near Tripoli, it endures a process for magic.  Apuleio denies that it they are imputable magical operations, but, attention, does not exclude the possibility of the magic, also remembering that in Persian "wizard" it means sacerdos.  In its practical Metamorphoses the magical ones are important in the development of the vicissitude:  like Lucio, the protagonist of the work transformed in ass, Apuleio was not perhaps insensitive to the curiositas for these operations.  That one of Apuleio remains however one embryonic trattazione of the magic concept, more than other to literary level, very lungi from the neoplatonica exposure.  But the magic will find a land of the most fertile development in the Middle Ages and, above all, it will see in Ruggero Bacone a its courageous defender:  it shares with the Franciscan Adam Marsh the sense of the danger of an advent of the Antichrist, able wizard to be useful for the discords that torment the Christian world and to use of the power of the wisdom in order to transform every thing in evil.  The idea of the knowledge face to change the strongest truth é in Ruggero Bacone:  it supports to have characterized the "true magic", than work in compliance with the operations of the nature and the technique and can give a contribution to science.  The resource to essential it é for the sage in its relationship with the world of the uncultivated ones, the simplices:  in order to diffuse its knowledge and to educate the world of simple the true sage it must assume the external garment of the wizard, to cover of a veil the principles of science and of the technique and to transmit some only turns out to you, so that also the uncultivated ones can use them under the guide of the sages and the Church well, essential point of reference of the baconiana and medieval philosophy.  But é in the Rinascimento, perhaps still more than in the Middle Ages, than prolific the magical art and which Marsilio Ficino or Pico of Aiming it, the lively talent of the Academy finds enthusiastic supporters in thinkers fiorentina, or Tawny Giordano, irrequieto the nolano author of a De magic.  The general attention of which it enjoys the magic in this period é to search essentially in the spirit of the umanisti, yearnings to exalt the freedom and the power of the man in all its shadings and, undoubtedly, the idea of being able to operate on the nature cannot that pleasure.  But if in Ficino the magic and the astrology come considered not already superstizione manifestations, but technical totally legitimate, revolts or to the study of the natural order (the astrology) or to the realization of the dominion of the man on the nature (the magic), for Pico the things are various:  it appreciates with extreme enthusiasm the magical limbs, that they concur with the man to dominate the nature prevailing itself on it, just why notices an exaltation to you of the free human will, but cannot absolutely accept the astrology:  the idea that all is expectable through the consultation of the stars é an obvious limitation of the free human will, that it finds instead its maximum exaltation in the magic.  A similar speech is worth for Tawny Giordano, that it even succeeds in to see the mathematics like a something much close to the magic:  to case the process that will carry it to burn alive on rogo 17 February 1600 does not begin with the accusation from part of the veneziano nobleman who accommodated it and seems that it has denounced it out of spite, in how much Tawny one had promised to it of insegnargli the magic - mathematical, but it was insoddisfatto of the instructions.  Beyond this personal vicissitude, é interesting to notice the interest of Tawny for the magic, that is the ability to transform the truth:  from a step of Tawny it emerges that what he effectively meant for magic;  the step says:  great magic would be that one of that it was in a position to passing from the unit to the variety and the variety to the unit La magic é from he understanding like ability to pick the mechanisms second which the unit is articulated in the variety, and the variety é all "recomposed" in the unit.  In an other written the Nolano it gives a definition of the wizard, $R-he who exercises the magical limbs:  magus significat sapientem cum virtute agendas.  The magic, often encircled in the previous centuries of a demonic aura, becomes in the Rinascimento positive science of the transformation, concrete sign of the dominion of the man on the elements.  We can adduce examples also in literary field:  we think next to the celeberrimo poema about the Ariosto, Bordering furious:  for all the poema a magical climate flutters and the personage in which more better the presence of magical é the Astolfo can be ravvisare, alter the ego of the author, intrepido the knight fortified of an able horn to terrify the enemies with its deafening sound, $R-he who knows them on the moon in rump to the ippogrifo in order to recover the ragion lost of Bordering.  But he goes endured specified a particular one:  Astolfo, also taking advantage itself nearly exclusively of magical objects, always moves and only back fine rations them.  Also in the poema of the Rate, the freed Gerusalemme, you é in some present measure the magic, although in less radical and diffused way that in the Ariosto:  the valoroso Rinaldo comes person in charge, on the end of the work, from "devout" the Goffredo of "disincantare" the forest popolato from elfi, dwaries fairies and quant' other.  However é on the Storm of Shakespeare that we must stop our attention:  considered the conclusive moment, the point of arrival and in a sure sense I seal of the artistic creation of the poet, the Storm, operates to horse between the ' 500 and the ' 600, ripropone the issue of the magical one.  In the beautiful one half of the Ocean, on a dispersed island, Prospero and its Miranda daughter dwell, remove to you from the ducato one of Milan at the hands of the brother of Prospero, invidioso of the power concentrated in the hands of same Prospero.  Prospero, than é alter the ego of the author at par of Astolfo for the Ariosto, destreggia with extreme abiltà between the magical objects and like has even formed an alliance a small spiritello of the air, Ariele:  using of just the magical cape it makes to be shipwrecked on the same island in which dwelling the ship with to edge perfido the brother, its crew and the allied king of Naples in order then to be able itself riconciliare with he;  with its magical powers it always makes so that the beautiful Ferdinand, son of the king of Naples, and its Miranda daughter innamorino and marries itself.  The ariostesco Astolfo and the shakespeariano Prospero, beyond to the fact to be alter ego of the authors, introduce obvious analogies:  both are fictitious personages whom space gives to the fervent fantasy of the poets and both use of fine the magical limbs exclusively in order to move back ration them.  However between the two an enormous difference, so great elapses that has carried some to define the Storm like true and just literary testament of Shakespeare:  while Astolfo between the magical instruments finds just comfort perfectly, as well as to seem born on purpose for they, and it would not be never dreammed to separate itself some, Prospero, to the contrary, on ending of the work rinnega the magic, a science that it does not hesitate to define "rozza", preferring to take advantage itself of its forces, "little", as it asserts, rather than of the incantesimi and the magical books with which anyone can dominate on the others and that, above all, if badly used they can be revealed funesti.  And é just clearly refusal of magic that ago of Storm true testament spiritual of Shakespeare and that it totally frames it in the cultural climate that was being breathed in Europe and, above all, in England of beginning ' 600.  In fact XVII the century marks prevailing of the mathematics and the riscoperta one of the reason, fall a Pò in the oblìo in the Middle Ages when it had yielded the step to the mystic and the faith.  Sure in 1600, therefore like with whichever other discovery, it was ended for excessive entusiasmarsi and in way an ingenuous Pò for the reason, much from proclamarla omnipotent, without sottoporla to a more critical examination.  without porsi the question mark "how much can my reason"  .  Obvious E' that, paradoxicalally, this ignited dogmatic enthusiasm for the reason ends in order to become irrazionale just why not us asks neanche if it has or less of the limits.  It will be then in 1700, with the advent of the illuminismo, than the reason to a more critical examination will be undergone, although already Locke in the ' 600 had had the intuition:  here then that Kant will institute true and just a court of the reason, where the reason é at the same time chargeed and judge:  culprit in the sense that is inquired on which is its limits and its field of applicabilità, judge in the sense that é just she that it inquires and it judges if same!  Sure this overed-measure confidence in the human reason, that it will be typical of thinkers which Cartesio, Spinoza and Hobbes, é very lungi investing the thought of Shakespeare, however he of risente when it perceives the incompatibilità and the crudeness of the magic, an art that esula totally from the rigor of the human reason.  It cannot then be made less than to cite one of more acerrimi enemy of the magic, a contemporary and compatriot of Shakespeare, Francisco Bacone (not to confuse with the medieval Ruggero).  Francisco Bacone, wanting rifondare the fatiscente building of the knowledge in way rations them and effective, ripropone to down throw the ancient construction that rested on mystical foundations and magical in order to rebuild all on bases it rations them and stable, that they mark the passage of century (from the ' 500 to the ' 600).  And he ravvisa in the magic something of incompatible arazionale and with the new century, characterized imperare of the human reason:  here then that it is absolutely necessary to detach itself from the magic, than totally it had been asserted in the Middle Ages and still more in the Rinascimento.  Francisco Bacone chip ax the typical idea of the magic of the knowledge for being able, the knowledge face to having implications on the truth and é also convinced that the knowledge for knowing of aristotelian stamp not servant to null, however cannot accept that this knowledge is stranger to the reason and is classified to one tightened cerchia elitaria:  the wizard, the stregone and therefore via.  The knowledge must be a common good, says Francisco Bacone, why common to all the men é the reason, of which all we arrange in the same measure:  if someone makes more road than others é only why it leads it with a better method;  é the typical idea of 1600.  Here then that with Francisco Bacone the knowledge becomes a common good to all the men and the progresses do not come carry out from single equip you to you of exceptional abilities, but they are fruit of a systematic job of group.  The knowledge does not have to be transmitted in dark way, like made the wizards, resuming a tendency of eraclitea matrix, but it must be comprehensible for all and it goes therefore expressed in the national language.  With Francisco Bacone we assist to the most important event:  the passage from magic to science, where to work in order to produce not é more the single one, but the equipe.  It strongly remains however radicata the idea of the knowledge for being able, than then it will characterize the industrial revolution, of which the Francisco Bacone é considered premonitory theorist.  And the second idea which the magic would be coglibile a primitivo knowledge rozzo and é in the Storm of Shakespeare that, for many backs, can be seen like emblema of the century passage:  in the moment in which Prospero rinnega the magical limbs and are separated from its instruments and from its sortilegi can be seen in symbolic key the passage from 1500 to 1600.  However there was also who supported that Francisco Bacone and Shakespeare were the same person, little credited hypothesis from the historical veridicità and more than consolidated other from the leggendaria tradition.  The baconiana critic to the magic finds its maximum expression in the Atlantis New, remained incompiuta:  Francisco Bacone and its companions of travel are shipwrecked and land for case on the island of Bensalem, to the whose government is the scientists, and not philosophers, that they had been from Platone places to the apex of its utopica society.  True draft of and an own one tecnocrazia, where, however they remain of the magical and mysterious elements, than Bacone it knew it or not:  however he risente a lot of the magical tradition also in the language of which servants:  in its fight against the prejudgments (idola), it will speak about idola tribus and idola specus, next terms much to the magical language.